Introduction With their remarkable flight capabilities, wild and captive birds play a pivotal role in the global dissemination of zoonotic pathogens including Chlamydia psittaci, Avian Influenza viruses (AIV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Usutu virus (USUV), and West Nile virus (WNV). They function both as hosts and reservoirs responsible for transporting the mentioned infectious agents across vast geographic regions. Additionally, captive birds and birds inhabiting urban environments, particularly in tourist destinations, present significant public health concerns due to facilitated close interactions with humans. Methods A total of 358 samples originating from fifteen bird species were collected across 21 locations in Sarajevo Canton, over three consecutive years (2022–2024). Upon collection, the samples were subjected to molecular analysis to detect the presence of zoonotic pathogens. For detection of Chlamydia spp., and C. psittaci, real-time PCRs (qPCR) were used following established protocols. Additionally, reverse transcriptase real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) were utilized for the detection of emergent viral pathogens including avian influenza viruses, Chikungunya, Usutu, and West Nile virus. Results Chlamydia spp. was detected in 29.9% (95% CI: 25.2–34.9) of samples. Further, C. psittaci was identified in 10.3% (95% CI: 5.2–17.7) of positive samples originating from captive birds and birds inhabiting urban environments. One sample (0.3%) originating from a wild bird was positive to West Nile Virus. None of the samples tested positive for Avian Influenza viruses, Chikungunya and Usutu virus. Discussion The identification of C. psittaci and West Nile virus highlights the increased likelihood of zoonotic transmission. This underscores the imperative for bolstered biosecurity measures and public health strategies aimed at mitigating the risk associated with both environmental exposure and direct contact, especially in areas characterized by substantial tourist activity.

Anthelmintic resistance in livestock is a growing concern worldwide, with significant implications for animal health and agricultural productivity. This study explores the perceptions of veterinarians and farmers in Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding the factors contributing to anthelmintic resistance in Haemonchus contortus nematodes. Data were collected through structured questionnaires completed by 106 veterinarians and 188 farmers in 2022 and 2023. The analysis focused on self-reported therapeutic practices, farm management and environmental variables. Logistic regression, including Firth’s penalized approach, was used to assess associations between these perceived factors and the reported occurrence of resistance. Notably, combination anthelmintic treatments were perceived as a significant risk factor (OR > 49.3), while higher altitude was seen as potentially protective (OR = 0.10). Routine prophylactic deworming was associated with an increased likelihood of perceived resistance (OR = 173.7), whereas staying informed about newly registered products was perceived as protective (OR = 0.34). Although the findings are based on the self-reported perceptions and practices of veterinarians and farmers, they align with globally recognized trends and offer the first structured insights into factors perceived to contribute to anthelmintic resistance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This study underscores the importance of awareness and responsible anthelmintic use and the need for improved diagnostics and ongoing education to combat anthelmintic resistance.

Ixodid ticks are present throughout the Western Balkan countries, including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia, with many species serving as vectors for pathogens of both veterinary and medical importance. We have conducted a thorough examination of existing literature, encompassing historical documents, to collect information on all documented non-zoonotic tick-borne pathogens found in ticks, pets, farm animals and wild animals across the Western Balkan region. A comprehensive review was necessary due to the scarcity and scattered nature of available data from this area. The tick fauna in the Western Balkans consists of 32 species across five genera: Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma. Various pathogens responsible for diseases in animals, including bacteria and parasites, have also been documented, many of which can cause important diseases and significant reductions in animal productivity. Initial efforts were directed towards pathogen surveillance and the characterisation of non-zoonotic tick-borne pathogens, resulting in the identification of Theileria orientalis, Anaplasma bovis and Anaplasma marginale in cattle, although significant gaps remain in the current research. Studies on small ruminants have been sparse, with confirmed cases of Anaplasma ovis and Babesia ovis in sheep, but no comprehensive and systematic research on pathogens in goats. In contrast, research on canine piroplasms has identified several species, including Babesia canis and Babesia vulpes. Studies on wild animals, however, have predominantly focused on wild canines and carnivores, with limited attention given to non-zoonotic pathogens. Notably, only one study has reported non-zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in artiodactyl species and wild felids. This review is a much needed overview of existing research on non-zoonotic tick-borne diseases in the Western Balkans, including the historical context, current data and research gaps. Given the significant impact of these diseases on animal health and productivity, as well as their potential biodiversity, further comprehensive studies and the establishment of national surveillance systems for tick-borne diseases are essential for a better understanding and mitigation of their impact. Graphical abstract

Introduction: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by joint inflammation and destruction, leading to significant pain and disability. Adenosine deaminase (ADA) is identified as a biomarker for RA’s inflammatory process. This study aims to investigate the potential of flavonoids and phenolic acids to inhibit ADA activity (in silico) and evaluate their anti-inflammatory effects in a RA model (in vivo). Methods: The molecular docking study was conducted using YASARA Structure 19.12.14. software following the Auto Dock 4.2 protocol. A rat model with pristane-induced arthritis was used to test the anti-inflammatory effect of selected polyphenols. The consistency of the development of the rat model was evaluated through the following indicators artistic score, paw volume, and body weight. Quercetin was administered intragastrically at doses of 150 and 400 mg/kg over 15 days. The C-reactive protein (CRP) level in serum was measured with an automatic biochemical analyzer. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 29.0.2.0. Results: Molecular docking simulations showed flavonoids inhibited ADA activity with inhibition constants ranging from 0.012 mM to 0.190 mM. In the in vivo RA model, quercetin significantly reduced joint inflammation and serum CRP levels at a higher dose of 400 mg/kg. Conclusion: Quercetin shows promise as an anti-inflammatory agent for RA by targeting ADA, suggesting that flavonoid-rich plant extracts could enhance RA treatment.

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which led to the COVID-19 pandemic, has significantly impacted global public health. The proper diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection is essential for the effective control and management of the disease. This study investigated the SARS-CoV-2 infection using RT-qPCR tests from laboratories in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We performed a retrospective study of demographic data and Ct values from 170,828 RT-qPCR tests from April 2020 to April 2023, representing 9.3% of total national testing. Samples were collected from 83,413 individuals across different age groups. Of all tests, 33.4% were positive for SARS-CoV-2, with Ct values and positivity rates varying across demographics and epidemic waves. The distribution was skewed towards older age groups, although lower positivity rates were observed in younger age groups. Ct values, indicative of viral load, ranged from 12.5 to 38. Lower Ct values correlated with higher positive case numbers, while higher Ct values signaled outbreak resolution. Additionally, Ct values decreased during epidemic waves but increased with the dominance of certain variants. Ct value-distribution has changed over time, particularly after the introduction of SARS-CoV-2 variants of interest/concern. Established Ct value trends might, therefore, be used as an early indicator and additional tool for informed decisions by public health authorities in SARS-CoV-2 and future prospective pandemics. Moreover, they should not be overlooked in future epidemiological events.

Simple Summary Ticks are ectoparasites with medical significance. They inhabit diverse environments and maintain close interactions with numerous vertebrate hosts. Ixodes ticks can transmit various pathogens to animals and humans. The aim here was to examine Ixodes ticks from Bosnia and Herzegovina to check for specific pathogens. This study found Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks from domestic animals. These findings highlight the need for the ongoing monitoring of ticks and tick-borne pathogens to protect animal and public health. Additionally, this study provides valuable insights into the occurrence and spread of these pathogens, emphasizing the importance of broader surveillance and control measures. Effective prevention, surveillance, and control of tick-borne diseases require urgent regional and international collaboration. Abstract Limited information is available regarding the presence of tick-borne pathogens and their distribution within Ixodes species in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This study aimed to identify Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) in Ixodes ticks collected from domestic and wild animals and vegetation in different regions across Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 7438 adult ticks, including 4526 Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes canisuga, and Ixodes hexagonus, were collected. Real-time PCR screening of 450 pooled I. ricinus samples revealed a 22.1% infection rate with at least one pathogen. Rickettsia spp. (6.3%) were found in ticks from dogs, cats, and goats, Babesia spp. (3.1%) in ticks from dogs and cattle, A. phagocytophilum (8.8%) in ticks from dogs, goats, and cattle, and B. burgdorferi s.l. (3.4%) in ticks from dogs and cats. Mixed infections with B. burgdorferi s.l. and A. phagocytophilum, as well as B. burgdorferi s.l. and Rickettsia spp., were found in two pools of I. ricinus from dogs and cats, respectively. Additionally, co-infection with Rickettsia spp. and A. phagocytophilum was confirmed in three tick pools from dogs and goats. Each tick from these pooled samples was individually retested to confirm the presence of pathogens. In the examined pooled samples of I. canisuga (1) and I. hexagonus (6), none of the tested pathogens were detected. Our findings represent the first detection of Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., A. phagocytophilum, and B. burgdorferi s.l. in I. ricinus collected from domestic animals and vegetation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Considering the established infection rates, the detection of tick-borne pathogens in adult ticks collected from domestic animals and vegetation enriches the current knowledge of the presence of tick-borne pathogens at the local, regional, national, and broader levels.

Dermacentor (D.) reticulatus ticks carry and transmit a wide range of pathogens to vertebrate hosts. Limited information is available about the existence of emerging tick-borne pathogens and the distribution of D. reticulatus in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study aimed to investigate the occurrence and distribution of D. reticulatus and to detect the presence of Anaplasma spp., Borrelia (B.) burgdorferi s.l., Rickettsia spp., and Babesia spp. in samples originating from questing ticks and ticks collected from domestic animals in various regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 402 collected D. reticulatus ticks were widely distributed throughout the country. Of the 41 pools consisting of 205 individual D. reticulatus ticks, 21 (51.2%) indicated the presence of Rickettsia spp., 17 (41.4%) of Babesia spp., 2 (4.8%) of Anaplasma spp., and 1 (2.4%) of B. burgdorferi s.l. after real-time PCR screening. Our study indicates that D. reticulatus has significantly expanded its distribution and host range in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Moreover, our results represent the first detection of Babesia spp. in D. reticulatus in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Given the demonstrated presence of emerging pathogens in questing and feeding ticks, there is an urge to establish a surveillance system for ticks and tick-borne pathogens in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Background In Bosnia and Herzegovina, domestic and wild carnivores represent a significant driver for the transmission and ecology of zoonotic pathogens, especially those of parasitic aetiology. Nevertheless, there is no systematic research of Trichinella species in animals that have been conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, even though trichinellosis is considered the most important parasitic zoonosis. The available results of the few studies carried out in Bosnia and Herzegovina are mainly related to the confirmation of parasitic larvae in the musculature of domestic pigs and wild boars or data related to trichinellosis in humans. The objective of our study was to present the findings of a comprehensive investigation into the species composition of Trichinella among 11 carnivorous species within the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as follows: red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), grey wolf ( Canis lupus ), brown bear ( Ursus arctos ), wildcat ( Felis silvestris ), pine marten ( Martes martes ), European badger ( Meles meles ), weasel ( Mustela nivalis ), European polecat ( Mustela putorius ), Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx ), but also dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) and cat ( Felis catus ). Results In the period 2013–2023, carnivore musculature samples ( n  = 629), each consisting of 10 g of muscle tissue, were taken post-mortem and individually examined using the artificial digestion method. In the positive samples ( n  = 128), molecular genotyping and identification of parasitic larvae of Trichinella spp. were performed using a PCR-based technique up to the species/genotype level. Positive samples were used for basic PCR detection of the genus Trichinella (rrnS rt-PCR technique) and genotyping (rrnl-EVS rt-PCR technique). The Trichinella infection was documented for the first time in Bosnia and Herzegovina among red foxes, grey wolves, brown bears, dogs, badgers and Eurasian lynx, with a frequency rate of 20.3%. Additionally, the presence of T. britovi infection was newly confirmed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, marking the initial documented cases. Furthermore, both T. britovi and T. pseudospiralis infections were observed in the wildcat population, whereas T. britovi and T. spiralis infections were detected in pine martens. Consistent with previous research, our findings align particularly regarding carnivores, with data from other countries such as Germany, Finland, Romania, Poland and Spain, where T. britovi exhibits a wider distribution (62.5–100%) compared to T. spiralis (0.0–37.5%). T. britovi is more common among sylvatic carnivores (89.0%), while T. spiralis prevails in wild boars (62.0%), domestic swine (82.0%) and rodents (75.0%). Conclusion The results of our study represent the first molecular identification of species of the genus Trichinella in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Additionally, our findings underscore the necessity for targeted epidemiological studies to thoroughly assess trichinellosis prevalence across diverse animal populations. Considering the relatively high frequency of trichinellosis infection in investigated animal species and its public health implications, there is an evident need for establishing an effective trichinellosis surveillance system in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Abstract Parasitic diseases of wild animals represent an important area of research. In addition to the significant impact on wildlife health and fitness, many parasitic diseases have zoonotic implications. Due to limited scientific information, this research aimed to investigate parasitic diseases in wildlife in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), focusing on the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FB&H), emphasizing zoonotic species. In the period from April 2020 to November 2022, we conducted research on 9 wildlife species. We analyzed fecal samples to detect and identify diagnostic stages (eggs, larvae, cysts, and oocysts) of various animal endoparasites using coprological methods, such as sedimentation, flotation, and the Baermann technique. The MERIFLUOR® Cryptosporidium/Giardia test was also used for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. In the case of red foxes, intestinal samples were examined using the intestinal scraping technique to detect adult helminths. All collected muscle samples were subjected to the artificial digestion method for Trichinella detection. From 1,278 samples, 70.9% were positive. Parasitic infections were confirmed in 15.9% (11/69) of bears; 83.7% (262/313) of red foxes; 67.6% (44/65) of wolves; 25% (1/4) of wildcats; 20% (1/5) of badger; 43.7% (7/16) of martens; 39.7% (76/191) of wild boars; 84.5% (350/414) of deer, and 77.1% (155/201) of hares. The finding of zoonotic parasites (Toxocara canis, Uncinaria spp., Trichinella spp., Echinococcus spp. etc.) is particularly important due to their potential detrimental effects on human health, which highlights the need for further investigations.