The phenolic composition, as well as the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of two poorly investigated Achillea species, Achillea lingulata Waldst. and the endemic Achillea abrotanoides Vis., were studied. To obtain a more detailed phytochemical profile, four solvents with different polarities were used for the preparation of the plant extracts whose phenolic composition was analyzed using UHPLC-MS/MS (ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry). The results indicate that both of the investigated Achillea species are very rich in both phenolic acids and flavonoids, but that their profiles differ significantly. Chloroform extracts from both species had the highest yields and were the most chemically versatile. The majority of the examined extracts showed antimicrobial activity, while ethanolic extracts from both species were potent against all tested microorganisms. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated. It was found that the ethanolic extracts possessed the strongest antioxidant activities, although these extracts did not contain the highest amounts of detected phenolic compounds. In addition, several representatives of phenolic compounds were also assayed for these biological activities. Results suggest that ethanol is a sufficient solvent for the isolation of biologically active compounds from both Achillea species. Moreover, it was shown that the flavonoids naringenin and morin are mainly responsible for these antimicrobial activities, while caffeic, salicylic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, p-hydroxybenzoic, and rosmarinic acid are responsible for the antioxidant activities of the Achillea extracts.

Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.) is one of the most distinctive plants, characterized by excellent resistance to various environmental conditions. It is used as an ornamental plant and is recognized as a medicinal plant in both traditional and Western medicine. Its bioactive potential is associated with the presence of flavonoids and terpene trilactones, but many other compounds may also have synergistic effects. Flavonoid dimers—biflavonoids—are important constituents of ginkgophytopharmaceuticals. Currently, the presence of 13 biflavonoids has been reported in ginkgo, of which amentoflavone, bilobetin, sciadopitysin, ginkgetin and isoginkgetin are the most common. Their role in plants remains unknown, but their bioactivity and potential role in the management of human health are better investigated. In this review, we have provided an overview of the chemistry, diversity and biological factors that influence the presence of biflavonoids in ginkgo, as well as their bioactive and health-related properties. We have focused on their antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and anti-inflammatory activities as well as their potential role in the treatment of cardiovascular, metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases. We also highlighted their potential toxicity and pointed out further research directions.

Salvia L. is the largest genus in the family Lamiaceae, with about 1,000 species and a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Salvia species are used in both traditional and conventional medicines, and other numerous industries, such as spices and perfumes. The number of papers dealing with Salvia exceeds 12,000 and mostly investigates their chemical composition and bioactive properties. A smaller proportion of papers however consider environmental factors, mostly on the effects of microclimate conditions on its geographic distribution along an altitudinal or longitudinal gradient, and very few studies can be found on the effects of emerging stressors on the commercial production of sages of medicinal and economical importance. Here, we summarize available data on the essential oil composition of three economically important sages from the Mediterranean area, that is, Salvia officinalis, Salvia officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia, and Salvia fruticosa, and the effects of climate-related environmental stressors on their chemical profiles. Environmental stress factors, such as an increase in soil salinity and aridity, and changes in annual average temperatures, are going to impose a serious risk on the commercial production of sage essential oils, which are commercially produced in many European countries. This review highlights the already confirmed effects of these stressors on three selected Salvia species and consequently the importance of mitigating the effects of climate change on the commercial production of these essential oils.

Background: Plants face a wide range of environmental stresses that disrupt growth and productivity. To survive and adapt, they undergo complex metabolic reprogramming by redirecting carbon and nitrogen fluxes toward the biosynthesis of protective secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, and lignin. Recent research has revealed that these stress-induced metabolic processes are tightly regulated by epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNAs. Methods: This review synthesizes current findings from studies on both model and crop plants, examining the roles of key epigenetic regulators in controlling secondary metabolism under stress. Special focus is placed on dynamic changes in DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and the action of small RNAs such as siRNAs and miRNAs in transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation. Results: Evidence indicates that stress triggers rapid and reversible epigenetic modifications that modulate gene expression linked to secondary metabolic pathways. These modifications not only facilitate immediate metabolic responses but can also contribute to stress memory. In some cases, this memory is retained and transmitted to the next generation, influencing progeny stress responses. However, critical knowledge gaps remain, particularly concerning the temporal dynamics, tissue specificity, and long-term stability of these epigenetic marks in crops. Conclusions: Understanding how epigenetic regulation governs secondary metabolite production offers promising avenues to enhance crop resilience and productivity in the context of climate change. Future research should prioritize dissecting the stability and heritability of these modifications to support the development of epigenetically informed breeding strategies.

Plants exhibit remarkable adaptability to environmental stresses, with epigenetic modifications playing a key role in stress memory and adaptation. This review explores how epigenetic mechanisms influence hormonal regulation in plants, shaping growth, development, and stress responses. Specifically, we focus on the roles of DNA methylation, histone modifications, and small RNAs in modulating auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellin (GA), and jasmonic acid (JA) pathways. These pathways influence the plant’s ability to cope with abiotic and biotic stresses and can be inherited by progeny, enhancing stress resilience across generations. By understanding the epigenetic regulation of these hormones, we aim to provide insights into how epigenetic priming can be harnessed in crop improvement to address the challenges posed by climate change.

Changes in the environment as a result of industrialisation and urbanisation impact negatively on plant growth and crop production. Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most dangerous metals that enters the food chain, with toxic effects on plants and human health. This study evaluated the potential of Silene sendtneri as a novel hyperaccumulator and the role of seed priming in tolerance and accumulation rate of Cd. The effect of different priming agents on germination performance, root growth, seedling development, metal uptake and accumulation, antioxidant defences including enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants has been assessed. Seed priming using silicic acid, proline alone or in combination with salicylic acid- enhanced germination, seedling development, and root growth under Cd stress. The same priming treatments induced an increase of water content in shoots and roots when plants were exposed to Cd. The enzymatic antioxidant response was specific for the priming agent used. An increase in ferulic acid and rutin in shoots was related to the increase of Cd concentration in the medium. The concentration of malic and oxalic acid increased significantly in shoots of plants grown on high Cd concentrations compared to low Cd concentrations. Silene sendtneri can accumulate significant levels of Cd with enhanced accumulation rate and tolerance when seeds are primed. The best results are obtained by seed priming using 1% silicic acid, proline and salicylic acid.

Abstract Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, tree of heaven, is an exotic tree introduced as a horticultural tree in Europe and America in 18th Century. Now it is aggressively invading ecosystems. This study was aimed to estimate phytotoxic potential of essential oils (EOs) from fourteen industrial, aromatic and medicinal crops, such as Thymus sp., Pinus sp., Origanum sp. etc. against this invasive species. The phytotoxic potential was assessed through three different doses of EOs by a germination bioassay and the effects on seedling growth. Analysis of seedling growth revealed that seven EOs (Petasites hybridus, Thymus serpyllum, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis, Helichrysum italicum, Matricaria chamomilla, Origanum vulgare) exhibit high phytotoxic effect resulting in 95–100% seedling mortality. Moreover, detailed GC-MS analysis of these oils showed that they are mostly comprised either of oxygenated monoterpenes or sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, which are already known as compounds with allelopathic effects. Presented results indicate these essential oils might be used as natural herbicides by foliar application of oils on young plants of Ailanthus altissima.

Abstract Detailed analysis of phenolic composition and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Verbascum glabratum subsp. bosnense (K. Malý) Murb., an endemic species of southeastern Dinaric Alps was performed for the first time. The phenolic composition measured via UHPLC-MS/MS of four extract with different polarity suggested this plant species is very rich in both phenolic acids and flavonoids. Ethanol extract was chemically the most versatile containing 12 compounds with quercitrin and rosmarinic acid as the majors, while water extracts were rich in 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, morin, and apigenin. All extracts showed high antioxidant potential measured spectrophotometrically with IC50 values ranging 0.139 - 0.021 mg/mL. Antimicrobial testing using agar diffusion test showed that ethanol extract was the most potent against all tested organisms. Also, these activities are correlated with the content of phenolic compounds, which suggest they are active ingredients of the extracts. Graphical Abstract

As sessile organisms, plants have evolved different strategies to defend themselves against various biotic stressors. An important aspect of the complex response of plants to biotic stress is the emission of volatile compounds (VOCs), which are involved in direct and indirect plant defence mechanisms. Indirect plant defences include a range of plant traits that mediate defence against herbivores and play an important ecological role by not only utilising plants-' own capabilities but also signalling and attracting natural enemies of herbivores. Often the combination of volatiles emitted is specific to herbivores; they are consequently recognised by parasites and other predators, providing a clear link between the volatile signature and the prey. In this review, we focus on indirect plant defence and summarise current knowledge and perspectives on relationships between plants, aphids, and parasitic wasps.

Gentiana lutea L. is a medicinal plant the roots of which are primarily used in treatments of various human digestive disorders, but also the production of alcoholic liquors. The roots (radix) of G. lutea are described in the European Pharmacopeia, but knowledge about the chemical composition and biological activities of its aerial parts is still limited. Thus, until today aerial parts of this species have not been used in medical treatments or consumed. Therefore, flowers, leaves, and stems extracts of G. lutea obtained by using four different extraction solvents (petrol ether, chloroform, ethanol, and water) were examined for their chemical composition and biological activities. High concentrations of salicylic acid, apigenin, and naringenin were recorded for ethanol stem extracts, while significant amounts of kaempferol were detected in leaves and flowers in chloroform and water extracts, respectively. The highest antioxidant potential was recorded for flower and stem petrol ether extracts with the lowest IC50 values, ranging from 94.46 ± 9.45 to 105.38 ± 10.54 μg/mL. Ethanol extracts of flowers and stems showed moderate antioxidant activity (IC50 143.15 ± 14.32 and 146.90 ± 14.69 μg/mL) as well as strong antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans (21.00 ± 1.00 and 27.50 ± 1.78 mm inhibition zones, respectively). In addition, ethanol extracts had higher antimycotic activity compared to naturally occurring phenolic compounds that are used as positive controls. Moreover, statistical analysis of the activities of plant extracts and single compounds showed that levels of chlorogenic and caffeic acids strongly correlate with the biological activities of the extracts, i.e., they are the main carriers of these biological activities. The presented results indicate the possible use of aerial parts of G. lutea as a natural preservative, as well as a antimicrobial agent, which significantly amplifies the benefits of this medicinal crop and greatly affects the sustainability of cultivated Gentiana plantation.

This study presents the first report on phenolic composition and bioactivity of ethanolic extracts of three plant species that grow in the western Balkan mountains and are used in traditional folk medicine: Valeriana montana, Salix retusa, and Campanula hercegovina. Phenolics were extracted from different aerial plant parts using 80% ethanol to assess the possibility of sustainable use of these plants as a source of bioactive compounds without disruption to the roots (for V. montana) or destruction of whole habitats (for S. retusa and C. hercegovina). The ethanolic extract of V. montana flower contained noticeable levels of apigenin and quercetin. The branches and bark of S. retusa were significantly rich in catechin, while rutin was the major phenolic found in the leaf extract of C. hercegovina. Furthermore, the flower extract of V. montana revealed the best antioxidant activity, which was comparable to 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and quercetin. Considering antimicrobial activity, the leaf extracts of V. montana and C. hercegovina demonstrated potent activity against all microbes tested, while the extracts of S. retusa were moderately effective. The presented results emphasize the potential of these plants as novel sources of bioactive compounds.

Introduction: The objective of the present study was to evaluate the antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of water extracts of leaves and barks from Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., A. incana (L.) Moench, and A. viridis (Chaix) DC.Methods: The antimicrobial activities of extracts were tested against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria as well as yeast strains by the agar diffusion method. The cell viability was determined by the Trypan blue dye exclusion method.Results: The largest diameters of inhibition zone (DIZ) were recorded with Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 and Bacillus subtilis 168M. The highest percentage of cell viability was observed with water bark extracts of A. glutinosa (97.46%).Conclusions: Potential antimicrobial properties of A. glutinosa, A. incana, and A. viridis demonstrated in this study, as well as their low levels of toxicity, make them an interesting subject for further studies.

Abstract The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of Mentha aquatica L. for phytoremediation of water contaminated with heavy metals and fecal pathogens from Bosna river. The water was treated with M. aquatica for 5, 10, and 15 days consecutively after which it was analyzed for the various physicochemical and microbiological parameters. The initial concentration of cadmium (Cd) ranged from 3.644 to 6.108 µg/l, while lead (Pb) varied between 0.1 and 1.386 µg/l. After treatment, M. aquatica accumulated significant amounts of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) with the highest removal rates of 96.49% for Cd and 45.72% for Pb. Values of several physicochemical parameters were decreased after 15 days treatment period. All water samples were analyzed for enumeration of aerobic heterotrophic bacteria, total coliforms, and fecal coliforms by the membrane filtration. Removal efficiency was greater than 80% for microbiological parameters. The concentration of heavy metals was determined in different plant parts and subsequently, the translocation factor was determined. In M. aquatica plant parts, concentrations of Pb and Cd were increased after 15 days of treatment. Our results demonstrated that M. aquatica could be good candidates for the removal of fecal pathogens and heavy metals present in surface water.

Antifungal, antimicrobial, insecticidal and antioxidant activities of Origanum vulgare L. provide the basis for suggesting that oregano plant extracts may be useful for prevention and treatment of many infection. The main goal of this study was to determine antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of methanolic and aqueous extracts from the leaves and flowers of Origanum vulgare. Antimicrobial testing of plant extracts was done using well diffusion method. Activity of extracts were tested against Gram positive bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ATCC 33591, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 and five Gram-negative bacteria: Salmonella abony ATCC 6017, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis ATCC 31194, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli ATCC 35218 and fungi Candida albicans ATCC 1023. Antibiotics ampicillin, streptomycin and antimycotic nystatin were used as positive controle. The antioxidant activity was determined by using the DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method. The highest values for inhibition zone for methanolic and aqueous extracts were recorded for Gram positive Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA. Methanolic extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against tested Gram negative bacteria in variable degree while the growth of these bacteria was not inhibited by aqueous extracts. Tested fungi Candida albicans was not susceptible to investigated oregano extracts. All the extracts showed moderate to potent antioxidant activity, among which the methanolic flower extract demonstrated the strongest antioxidant activity with the IC50 value of 0.205 mg/mL. Therefore it can be concluded that flower and leaf oregano extracts have great antibacterial and antioxidant potential.